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Confucius had one overwhelming message: if we are to achieve a
state of orderliness and peace, we need to return to
traditional values of virtue. These values are based entirely
on one concept: jen , which is best translated as
"humaneness," but can also mean "humanity," "benevolence,"
"goodness," or "virtue." This humaneness is a relatively
strange concept to Western eyes, because it is not primarily a
practicable virtue. Rather, the job of the "gentleman," ch'ün
tzu , was to concentrate on the highest concepts of behavior
even when this is impractical or foolish. Like his
contemporaries, Confucius believed that the human order in
some way reflected the divine order, or the patterns of
heaven. More than anything, according to Confucius, the
ancients understood the order and hierarchy of heaven and
earth; as a result, Confucius established the Chinese past as
an infallible model for the present.
What is incumbent on individual people is to determine the
right pattern to live and govern by; this can be achieved by
studying the sage-kings and their mode of life and government
and by following rituals scrupulously, for the pattern of
heaven is most explicitly inscribed on the various rituals, li
, prescribed for the conduct of everyday life. Neglecting
ritual, or doing rituals incorrectly, demonstrated a moral
anarchy or disorder of the most egregious kind. These heavenly
patterns were also inscribed in the patterns of music and
dance, yüeh , so that order in this life could be attained by
understanding and practicing the order of traditional and
solemn music and dance. Music and dance are talked about
constantly in the Confucian writings. Why? Because traditional
music and dance perfectly embody the humaneness and wisdom of
their composers, who understood perfectly the order of the
world and heaven; one can create within oneself this wisdom by
properly performing this music and dance.
One cannot discuss Confucianism without at least mentioning
the man the Chinese call "The Second Sage," Meng Tzu, or, in
Latinized form, Mencius (372-289 B.C.) Mencius, like Confucius
and Mo Tzu before him, concerned himself entirely with
political theory and political practice; he spent his life
bouncing from one feudal court to another trying to find some
ruler who would follow his teachings. Like Confucius and Mo
Tzu before him, he was largely unsuccessful in his endeavor.
In fact, China had degenerated precipitously in Mencius's
time: individual states were preying on and conquering others
and the rulers of the time had no patience for what they
considered prattling about the ancients and their ways. Also,
rival schools, especially the Moist schools (see "Mo Tzu"
below), were putting up a good fight as far as bending the
ears of rulers are concerned.
As a Confucian, Mencius based his entire system of thought on
the concept of jen : "humaneness," "humanity," "benevolence,"
etc. To this basic doctrine he added the concept of i :
"righteousness," or "duty." What does this mean? Mencius
believed that the "humaneness" or "benevolence" that you show
to individuals should in some way be influenced by the type of
personal relationship you have to that person. One displayed
jen to a person based on that person's position (as well as
your own) and the obligations you owe to that person, so that
you owe more jen to your immediate family than you do, say, to
the Prime Minister of Canada. I , then, means that we have
obligations to people that arise from social relations and
social organization, not because there is some divine law
mandating these obligations.
Mencius several times throughout Chinese history has been
regarded as a potentially "dangerous" author, leading at times
to outright banning of his book. This is because Mencius
developed a very early form of what was to be called in modern
times the "social contract." Mencius, like Confucius, believed
that rulers were divinely placed in order to guarantee peace
and order among the people they rule. Unlike Confucius,
Mencius believed that if a ruler failed to bring peace and
order about, then the people could be absolved of all loyalty
to that ruler and could, if they felt strongly enough about
the matter, revolt.
We begin our short discussion of Taoism with the following
warning: as all the Taoist writers tell us, it is in the
nature of the Tao that it cannot be spoken of. Talking about
Taoism in a clear and rational way is, in fact, not to talk
about Taoism.
That aside, Taoism is, along with Confucianism, the most
important strain of Chinese thought through the ages. It is
almost entirely different from Confucianism, but not
contradictory. It ranges over entirely different concerns, so
that it is common for individuals, philosophers, Chinese
novels or films, etc., to be both Confucianist and Taoist. The
Taoist has no concern for affairs of the state, for mundane or
quotidian matters of administration, or for elaborate ritual;
rather Taoism encourages avoiding public duty in order to
search for a vision of the transcendental world of the spirit.
Chinese Philosophy Confucius
Mencius
Mo Tzu
Chinese Glossary Tao
Taoism is based on the idea that behind all material things
and all the change in the world lies one fundamental,
universal principle: the Way or Tao. This principle gives rise
to all existence and governs everything, all change and all
life. Behind the bewildering multiplicity and contradictions
of the world lies a single unity, the Tao. The purpose of
human life, then, is to live life according to the Tao, which
requires passivity, calm, non-striving (wu wei ), humility,
and lack of planning, for to plan is to go against the Tao.
The text of Lao Tzu is primarily concerned with portraying a
model of human life lived by the Tao; later writers will
stress more mystical and magical aspects. But Lao Tzu was,
like Confucius, Mo Tzu, and Mencius, also concerned with the
nature of government; he believed unquestioningly in the idea
that a government could also exist in accordance with the Tao.
What would such a government look like? It would not wage war,
it would not be complex, it would not interfere in people's
lives, it would not wallow in luxury and wealth, and, ideally,
it would be inactive, serving mainly as a guide rather than as
a governor. There were people who tried to translate Lao Tzu
into real political action during the Han dynasty; these were,
as you might imagine, spectacular failures.
Taoism is frequently called in China, "The Teachings of the
Yellow Emperor and Lao Tzu," or "The Teachings of Lao Tzu and
Chuang Tzu." Now, Chuang Tzu (369-286 B.C.) was a real person;
his teachings come down to us in a short collection of his
sayings. The Yellow Emperor is entirely mythical. This Lao
Tzu, however, we know nothing about; we cannot say with
certainty if he existed and when; on the other hand, we cannot
say with certainty that he did not exist. All we know is that
we have a very short book, the Lao Tzu (or Tao te ching),
whose author is supposed to be Lao Tzu. The book is hard to
read (as is Chuang Tzu), for one of the underlying principles
of Taoism is that it can not be talked about. Hence, Lao Tzu
uses non-discursive writing techniques: contradiction,
paradox, mysticism, and metaphor.
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